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Cervical cancer is a disease where cancer cells form in the cervix, which is the lower, narrow part of the uterus connecting to the vagina. The cervix has two main parts: the outer part, covered with flat cells called squamous cells, and the inner canal lined with glandular cells that produce mucus. Most cervical cancers start in the area where these two cell types meet, known as the transformation zone. The two main types of cervical cancer are squamous cell carcinoma (from the flat cells) and adenocarcinoma (from the glandular cells). Sometimes, cancers have features of both types.
Cervical cancer usually develops slowly over many years. Before cancer forms, cervical cells may become abnormal, a stage called precancer or dysplasia. These changes can be found with screening tests before symptoms appear.
The most important cause of cervical cancer is a long-lasting infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), a virus passed mainly through sexual contact. Most HPV infections clear on their own, but if the infection persists, it can cause cell changes that may eventually lead to cancer. Other factors that may increase risk include a weakened immune system, smoking, long-term use of birth control pills, having many children, obesity, and exposure before birth to a drug called DES.
Many people with cervical cancer have no symptoms at first. When symptoms do occur, they might include unusual vaginal bleeding (such as after sex or between periods), watery or foul-smelling vaginal discharge, or pelvic pain. If the cancer spreads, symptoms can also include pain during urination or bowel movements, blood in urine or stool, back pain, swollen legs, or fatigue.
Screening tests like the Pap test and HPV test are key to finding abnormal cervical cells early. The Pap test collects cells from the cervix to look for changes, while the HPV test checks for virus types that can cause cancer. If screening results are abnormal, further tests such as a colposcopy (a close examination of the cervix) and biopsy (removal of tissue for testing) may be done to confirm if cancer or precancer is present. Screening is usually recommended starting at age 21, with HPV testing beginning around age 25, and the schedule depends on age and health history.
Treatment depends on the cancer’s stage and may include surgery to remove cancerous tissue, radiation therapy to kill cancer cells, chemotherapy to shrink or kill cancer, or targeted therapies. Many cases are found early through screening and can be treated successfully. It is important to understand that not all abnormal cervical cells mean cancer; some are precancerous and can be treated to prevent cancer.
When learning about cervical cancer, it can help to ask your healthcare provider how often you should be screened, what your test results mean, and what treatment options are best for your situation. If you have concerns about cervical cancer or screening, your doctor or nurse can explain what applies to you and guide you through testing, diagnosis, and treatment if needed.
This information is educational and cannot replace personalized advice from your healthcare provider. Early detection and regular screening are key steps to protect your health and catch cervical changes before they become cancer.
Public source information used for this glossary entry includes: